English cuisine

Fish and chips is a widely consumed part of English cuisine.

Since the Early Modern Period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach such as meat and two veg, honesty of flavour, and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce. During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. The French sometimes referred to English people as les rosbifs, as a stereotype to suggest English food is crude or unsophisticated. However, the cuisine of England has recently had a more positive revival with the critics, with some good ratings in Restaurant's best restaurant in the world charts.^[161] An early book of English recipes is the Forme of Cury from the royal court of Richard II.^[162]

Apple pie has been consumed in England since the Middle Ages.

Traditional examples of English food include the Sunday roast; featuring a roasted joint, usually beef, lamb or chicken, served with assorted boiled vegetables, Yorkshire pudding and gravy.^[163] Other prominent meals include fish and chips and the full English breakfast—consisting of bacon, grilled tomatoes, fried bread, black pudding, baked beans, fried mushrooms, sausages and eggs. Various meat pies are consumed such as steak and kidney pie, shepherd's pie, cottage pie, Cornish pasty and pork pie, the later of which is consumed cold.^[163] Sausages are commonly eaten, either as bangers and mash or toad in the hole. Lancashire hotpot is a well known stew. Some of the most popular cheeses are Cheddar and Wensleydale. Many Anglo-Indian hybrid dishes, curries, have been created such as chicken tikka masala and balti. Sweet English dishes include apple pie, mince pies, spotted dick, scones, Eccles cakes, custard and sticky toffee pudding. Common drinks include tea, which became far more widely drunk due to Catherine of Braganza, while alcoholic drinks include wines and English beers, usually drank in public houses such as bitter, mild, stout and brown ale.^[165]

English folklore

A man dressed as Robin Hood, an archetypal figure in English folklore whose story originates from medieval times.

The origin of much folklore in the area which is now called England pre-dates the Anglo-Saxon invasions.^[153][154] The Matter of Britain contains much folklore, which is shared with the British Isles in general and Welsh mythology in particular. Most famous of all are the stories of Arthurian legend surrounding King Arthur, Camelot, Excalibur, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table like Lancelot and Tristan.^[155] These stories are most centrally brought together within Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae. Another early figure from Brythonic times is King Cole based on a historical figure who ruled much of what would become northern England in the post-Roman period. Pixies, giants, elfs, ogres, bogeymen, trolls, hobgoblins and dwarf are mythological creatures which run through many stories. Brutus of Troy a legendary descendent of Aeneas is said to have founded London as a "New Troy".^[156] Other legends developed after the Norman invasion; Robin Hood is perhaps the best known, he "stole from the rich to give to the poor", his Merry Men, Sherwood Forest and the Sheriff of Nottingham feature prominently.^[157]

Maypole dance, a form of English folk dance

Many folkish figures are based on semi-historical people whose story has been passed down centuries; Lady Godiva for instance was said to have rode naked on horseback through Coventry, Hereward the Wake was a heroic English figure resisting the Norman invasion, Herne the Hunter is an equestrian ghost associated with Windsor Forest and Great Park and Mother Shipton is the archetypal witch. On 5 November people make bonfires, set off fireworks and eat toffee apples in commemoration of the Gunpowder Plot centred around Guy Fawkes. The chivalrous bandit is a reacurring character such as Dick Turpin, while Blackbeard is the archetypal pirate. There are various national folk traditions such as Morris dancing, Maypole dancing, Rapper sword in the North East, Long Sword dance in Yorkshire, Mummers Plays, bottle-kicking in Leicestershire and cheese-rolling at Cooper's Hill.^[159] There is no official national costume, but a few are well established such as the Pearly Kings and Queens associated with cockneys, the Royal Guard and Beefeaters.

Architecture

St. Paul's Cathedral, English Baroque

Many ancient standing stone monuments were erected during the prehistoric period, amongst the best known are Stonehenge, Devil's Arrows, Rudston Monolith and Castlerigg.^[148] With the introduction of Ancient Roman architecture there was a development of basilicas, baths, amphitheaters, triumphal arches, villas, Roman temples, Roman roads, Roman forts, stockades and aqueducts.^[149] It was the Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London, Bath, York, Chester and St Albans. Perhaps the best known example is Hadrian's Wall stretching right across northern England.^[149] Another well preserved example is the Roman Baths at Bath, Somerset.^[149] Early Medieval architecture's secular buildings were simple constructions mainly using timber with thatch for roofing. Ecclesiastical architecture ranged from a synthesis of Hiberno—Saxon monasticism,^[150][151] to Early Christian basilica and architecture characterised by pilaster-strips, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular headed openings. After the Norman conquest in 1066 various Castles in England were created so law lords could uphold their authority and in the north to protect from invasion. Some of the best known medieval castles include the Tower of London, Warwick Castle, Durham Castle and Windsor Castle amongst others.^[152]

The Broadway Tower is a folly, or mock tower, in Worcestershire.

Throughout the Plantagenet era an English Gothic architecture flourished—the medieval cathedrals such as Canterbury Cathedral, Westminster Abbey and York Minster are prime examples.^[152] Expanding on the Norman base there was also castles, palaces, great houses, universities and parish churches. Medieval architecture was completed with the 16th century Tudor style; the four-centred arch, now known as the Tudor arch, was a defining feature as were wattle and daub houses domestically. In the aftermath of the Renaissance a form of architecture echoing classical antiquity, synthesised with Christianity appeared—the English Baroque style, architect Christopher Wren was particularly championed. Georgian architecture followed in a more refined style, evoking a simple Palladian form; the Royal Crescent at Bath is one of the best examples of this. With the emergence of romanticism during Victorian period, a Gothic Revival was launched—in addition to this around the same time the Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such as The Crystal Palace. Since the 1930s various modernist forms have appeared whose reception is often controversial, though traditionalist resistance movements continue with support in high places.

Religion in England

Canterbury Cathedral, seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury

Christianity is the most widely practiced religion in England and has been since the Early Middle Ages, though its existence on the island dates back to the Gaelic and Roman introduction in antiquity and continued through Early Insular Christianity. Around 71.6% of English people identify as Christians.^[139] The largest form practiced in the present day is Anglicanism, dating from the 16th century Reformation period, with the 1536 split from Rome over Henry VIII wanting to divorce Catherine of Aragon, the religion regards itself as both Catholic and Reformed. There are both High Church and Low Church traditions, with a portion of Anglicans regarding themselves as Anglo-Catholics after the Tractarian movement. Head of the Church is the monarch of the United Kingdom as the Supreme Governor. It has the status of established church in England. There are around 26 million adherents to the Church of England and they form part of the Anglican Communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury acting as the symbolic worldwide head.^[140] Many cathedrals and parish churches are historic buildings of significant architectural importance, such as Westminster Abbey, York Minster, Durham Cathedral and Salisbury Cathedral.

Saint George, the patron saint of England

The second largest Christian practice is the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church which traces its formal, corporate history in England to the 6th century with Augustine's mission and was the main religion on the entire island for around a thousand years. Since its reintroduction after the Catholic Emancipation, the Church has organised ecclesiastically on an England and Wales basis where there are 4.5 million members (most of whom are English).^[141] There has been one Pope from England to date, Adrian IV; while saints Bede and Anslem are regarded as Doctors of the Church. A form of Protestantism known as Methodism is the third largest and grew out of Anglicanism through John Wesley.^[142] It gained popularity in the mill towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and amongst tin miners in Cornwall.^[143] There are other non-conformist minorities, such as Baptists, Quakers, Congregationalists, Unitarians and the Salvation Army.^[144]

The patron saint of England is Saint George, he is represented in the national flag, as well as the Union Flag as part of a combination.^[145][145] There are many other English and associated saints, some of the best known include; Cuthbert, Alban, Wilfrid, Aidan, Edward the Confessor, John Fisher, Thomas More, Petroc, Piran, Margaret Clitherow and Thomas Becket. There are non-Christian religions practiced. Jews have a history of a small minority on the island since 1070.^[147] They were expelled from England in 1290 following the Edict of Expulsion, only to be allowed back in 1656. Especially since the 1950s Eastern religions from the former British colonies have began to appear, due to foreign immigration; Islam is the most common of these accounting for around 3.1% in England.^[139] Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism are next in number adding up to 2% combined,^[139] introduced from India and South East Asia. Prior to the rise of Christianity—Celtic, Roman and Anglo-Saxon polytheism was practiced. Around 14.6% claim to have no religion.

Science, engineering and innovation

Sir Isaac Newton is one of the most influential figures in the history of science.

Prominent English figures from the field of science and mathematics include Sir Isaac Newton, Michael Faraday, Robert Hooke, Robert Boyle, Joseph Priestley, J. J. Thomson, Charles Babbage, Charles Darwin, Stephen Hawking, Christopher Wren, Alan Turing, Francis Crick, Joseph Lister, Tim Berners-Lee, Andrew Wiles and Richard Dawkins. Experts claim that the earliest concept of a Metric system was invented by John Wilkins, first secretary of the Royal Society in 1668.^[136] As birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, England was home to many significant inventors during the late 18th and early 19th century. Famous English engineers include Isambard Kingdom Brunel, best known for the creation of the Great Western Railway, a series of famous steamships, and numerous important bridges, hence revolutionising public transport and modern-day engineering.^[137]

Inventions and discoveries of the English include; the first industrial spinning machine, the first computer and the modern computer, the World Wide Web along with HTTP and HTML, performance of the first blood transfusion, the vacuum cleaner, the lawnmower, the seat belt, the hovercraft, the electric motor, the microphone and steam engines. Theories such as the Darwinian theory of evolution and the atomic theory. Newton was the promulgator of universal gravitation, Newtonian mechanics and infinitesimal calculus, while Robert Hooke promulgator the Hooke's law of elasticity. Other inventions include the iron plate railway, the thermosiphon, tarmac, the rubber band, the mousetrap, "cat's eye" road safety device, joint development of the light bulb, steam locomotives, the seed drill, the jet engine and many modern techniques and technologies used in precision engineering.